Organ Pipes
A modern organ keyboard generally has a compass of five octaves, from two octaves below middle C to three octaves above, making 61 notes. (Some older organs have shorter compasses, extending to only two-and-a-half octaves or so above middle C since older organ music did not call for the highest notes.) Organ pipes may be made of wood or metal, a lead/tin alloy similar to pewter. At unison pitch (the same pitch as a piano), for an open stop, the lowest pipe, two octaves below middle C, will have a length of approximately 8 feet from the mouth to the top and is thus called an eight ft. stop at the console. Open pipes are standard organ pipes open at the top. In the diagram below, the points of the most excellent vibration of the air are at the antinodes (A), which are at the top and the mouth. The point of most minor vibration is at the node (N), approximately in the middle of the pipe. Minimal vibration occurs from the pipe's body, and most of the vibration emanates from the top and the mouth, setting up standing waves in the building capable of being heard. λ is the wavelength, and l is the speaking length of the pipe. As the diagram shows, n2, n3, etc., represent the harmonics. An open pipe producing the second harmonic will be 8/2 = 4 ft. and play an octave higher than the unison pitch. The third harmonic will be 8/3 = 22/3 ft. and play an octave and a (pure) fifth higher than the unison pitch. The fourth harmonic will be 8/4 = two ft., playing two octaves above the unison pitch. The fifth harmonic will be 8/5 = 13/5 ft., playing two octaves and a (pure) third above unison pitch. The sixth harmonic will be 8/6 = 11/3 ft., playing two octaves and a (pure) fifth above unison pitch. As well as unison stops, the organ stops at all these different pitches to reinforce specific harmonics and create more volume and different timbres. These stops will be marked at the console with their appropriate pitch, such as 22/3 ft.
Stop (or stopped) pipes are closed at the top by a wooden stopper or tampon, a metal canister, or a top soldered. The second diagram shows that the stopped pipe has its node (N) at the top and a single antinode (A) at the mouth. A stopped pipe of 8 ft. speaking length will produce a pitch one octave below unison pitch, and the stop will therefore be marked 16 ft. at the console, meaning 16 ft. pitch. In the case of stopped pipes, only the odd harmonics are produced, i.e., 16/3 = 51/3 ft., 16/5 = 31/5 ft., etc.
Generally speaking, the wider the pipe, the flutier the tone; the narrower the pipe, the brighter the tone. Organ stops are generally divided into three categories -- flutes (wide scale), diapasons or principals (medium scale), and strings (narrow scale). The stops representing the harmonics are also produced in pipes of different scales, e.g., a flute-scaled Nazard 22/3 ft., a principal scaled Quint 22/3 ft. (sometimes called Twelfth 22/3 ft. because it plays a twelfth higher than unison pitch), or a string scaled Salicet 4ft. Stops whose pitch is an odd-numbered harmonic are known as mutation stops. String mutation stops are relatively rare, as stop sounding the seventh harmonic, 11/7 ft: flat Twenty-first (principal scale) or Septième (flute scale).
The diapason and principal stops, and their harmonics on a particular manual or in the pedal are known as the diapason or principal chorus. They will often include ranks of high pitch such as Nineteenth 11/3 ft., Twenty-second 1 ft., Twenty-sixth 2/3 ft., Twenty-ninth 1/2 ft., and so on. For convenience's sake, these higher pitched stops are often grouped in what is called mixture stops, and a Mixture with four sets of pipes or ranks to a note would be called Mixture IV or Mixture 4 ranks. at the console and would typically start at low (8 ft.) C as something like 19-22-26-29. To reinforce the treble, and also because the upper pitched pipes become impossibly small to make and may even be above the human threshold of hearing, it is customary to "break back" or move the pitch of the ranks down by, say, a fifth at intervals of, say, and octave. Thus a typical Mixture IV might be:
C 19-22-26-29
c0 15-19-22-26
c1 12-15-19-22
c2 8 - 12-15-19
c3 1 - 8 - 12-15
(Note here that the Quint or Fifth, 51/3 ft., is usually avoided because it is part of the 16 ft. and not the eight ft. harmonic series, so the top octave here is 1(unison), 8 (octave), 12th. And 15th., rather than 5-8-12-15).
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The Organ Music of Emma Louise Ashford
Emma Louise Hindle was born into a musical family in Newark, Delaware, in 1850. Her family was constantly moving around, and at the age of twelve, she became the organist of the Episcopal Church in Kewanee, Illinois. At fourteen, she was an organist of the Episcopal Church in Seymour, Connecticut. At seventeen, she married John Ashford, an engineer from Bath, England. They moved first to live in Chicago, where Mrs. Ashford was a soloist in Dudley Buck's choir at St. James Episcopal Church. They later moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where John Ashford was a faculty member at Vanderbilt University for several decades. Mrs. Ashford was a prominent part of the musical life of Vanderbilt University and an organist of several Nashville churches, including Christ Church Episcopal Cathedral. Many of her organ compositions appeared between 1898 and 1920 in the bi-monthly periodical The Organist, of which she was the editor. She died in Nashville in 1930. A video of E. L. Asford's Fanfare in G minor may be found here.
Organ Compositions of Emma Louise Hindle Ashford (1830-1850)
Abendlied
Albumblatt
Album leaf
Allegretto
Andante con moto in F major
Andante con moto in A major
Andante non-troppo
Angelus
Barcarolle
Blow ye the trumpet, blow (Postlude)
Canzone
Calvary
Closing Voluntary
Communion in G major
Voluntary on the hymn "Come ye disconsolate."
Dennis: Hymn Voluntary
Easter Voluntary
Elevation
Evening hymn
Eventide
Fantasie
Fantasia in A minor
Fantasia in E minor
Festival Postlude
Postlude for Festival Occasions
Funeral Voluntary
Gavotte in D major
God be with you
Harwell (Easter Voluntary)
Holy, holy, holy (for Trinity Sunday)
Hymn of thanksgiving
Impromptu in D major
Invocation
Lead, kindly light
Liebes Lied No. 1
Liebes Lied No. 2
Liebes Lied No. 3
Longing
Matin Song
Meditation
Melody in B flat major
Melody in E flat major
Minuetto
Marche Militaire
Moment musical
Morning song No. 1
Morning song No. 2
Morning song No. 3
Onward, Christian soldiers
Opening voluntary in A flat major
Opening voluntary in A major
Opening voluntary in B flat major
Opening voluntary in C major
Opening voluntary in E flat major No. 1
Opening voluntary in E flat major No. 2
Opening voluntary in G minor
Parting
Pass me not, O gentle Savior
Postlude in A minor
Postlude in B flat major
Postlude in C major
Postlude in F major
Prelude in A flat major
Prelude in A major
Prelude in B flat major
Prelude in C major
Prelude in D major No. 1
Prelude in D major No. 2
Prelude in D major No. 3
Prelude in D minor
Prelude in E major
Prelude in E minor
Prelude in F major No. 1
Prelude in F major No. 2
Prelude in G major
Prince of Peace
A red, red rose
Resignation
Reverie No. 1
Reverie No. 2
Reverie No. 3
By the river
Soldiers' chorus
Shepherd's Sunday morning
Sketch
Song of joy
A song of spring
Song without words No. 1
Song without words No. 2
St. Agnes' Eve
A stray fancy
Sunset
Sweet by and by
Theme
Venetian boat song
Vesper Hymn No. 1
Vesper Hymn No. 2
Wedding March No. 1
Wedding March No. 2
Christmas Chimes
Christmas Voices
Brunel's Steamships
S.S. Great Western
In 1836 Thomas Guppy and several Bristol entrepreneurs, who were also closely connected with the Great Western Railway, formed the Great Western Steamship Company to operate a steamship service between Bristol and New York. It was natural that I. K. Brunel should have been asked to design the ship, but this backfired on the Great Western Railway by alienating many of their shareholders with commercial interests in the rival port of Liverpool. The S.S. "Great Western" was built in Bristol by Patterson & Mercer and was launched on 19 July 1837. The wooden ship was fitted with a paddle wheel and had a gross registered tonnage of 1,340 tons. The "Great Western" commenced its maiden voyage on 8 April 1838 and arrived in New York on 23 April, capturing the "blue riband" for the fastest Transatlantic voyage with an average speed of 8.66 knots. The ship was withdrawn from service in December 1846 but was later sold and eventually saw service in the Crimean War, after which it was broken up in 1856.